Public Relation Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Public Relation Crisis - Essay Example This discussion will critically analyze the two cases chosen for depicting the PR crisis and how PR crisis impacts the overall reputation of the firm. The analysis will be done on the basis of how the companies were impacted due to the PR crisis. As the essay stresses that Public Relation is defined as the process of managing and controlling the inflow and outflow of information between an organization, an individual and the public. It is basically an approach by which organizations try to gain exposure to their target addressees by employing topics of public interest and spreading some zesty news. The primary rationale behind practising public relation is to convince the investors, employees, partners, customers, and stakeholders about the company’s products, political decision and leadership activities. Some of the evident ways by which the practise of public relation can be portrayed are winning industry awards, working closely with the press, speaking at meeting or confere nce, and employee communication. In the present business environment, importance of public relation has been like never before. Public relation is now treated as one of the most vital management disciplines. This paper explores that a crisis generally descends without any warning. It does not even give time to take any kind of precautionary measures. A crisis suddenly expands hysterically leaving hardly any chances for an immediate recovery. Moreover it disrupts the business transactions and at times intimidates the survival of an organization. ... In the present business environment, importance of public relation has been like never before. Public relation is now treated as one of the most vital management disciplines. Moreover, if properly practised public relation can play a crucial role in maintaining a sound relationship with the internal and external stakeholders of the company. The support is also important to meet the goals and objectives of the organization. In general public relation is a mere communication activity, that put emphasis on the two way communication process. Therefore it is way by which a mutual understanding between the organization, its stakeholders and the customers is established (Kitchen, 1997, p.8). Public Relation Crisis: A Brief Overview A crisis generally descends without any warning. It does not even give time to take any kind of precautionary measures. A crisis suddenly expands hysterically leaving hardly any chances for an immediate recovery. Moreover it disrupts the business transactions and at times intimidates the survival of an organization (Fearn-Banks, 2010, p.2). Some of the example of PR crisis includes Johnson & Johnson's cyanide-laced Tylenol capsules, PepsiCo's can tamper rumours, Texaco's racial discrimination lawsuit, Odwalla Foods' apple juice E-Coli outbreak, Cadbury's worm infested candy bars, JetBlue's week-long operational breakdown and The Red Cross' rogue tweet among many others. Public relation crisis is some time referred to as the communication crisis from the organizational context of view. However it is also important to overcome the issue effectively. It can be done by adopting sound crisis management techniques. Some of the ways by which the challenge can be faced are

How the introduction of a new technology can assist an organisation in Dissertation

How the introduction of a new technology can assist an organisation in achieving its business objectives (Apple Company) - Dissertation Example The organization that will be the centre of the research is Apple Incorporation with focus on their iphone and ipad products. This study is significant in view of the fact that Apple Inc is considered as the leading organization in computing and mobile information innovation (Shi, 2011). Apple Inc is ranked 35 in Fortune 500 of 2011, 21 ranks higher compared with last year (www.fortune.com). The company’s increased in rank is visible manifestation not only of increased revenue, but it is also a show of the company exists expanding market and its capacity in creating new ones. Furthermore, in order to address the topic of the research, a look into the objectives of the Apple Inc., as well as, the company’s performance in the market will be performed. 1.2. Reasons for the Topic Chosen Fast phased developments in technology are an essential attribute of the contemporary period, especially in the business world (Andersen, 2001). The reasons behind why this topic has been chosen are because 1) Integral in the survival of contemporary organizations is it response to the challenges and demands of new technologies (Thomas 1994, p. 235). As such, the research believes that understanding the alignment between objectives and new technologies can further the knowledge necessary in apprehending the business environment of organisations. 2) Apple Inc is considered as one of the most innovative organizations in computer and mobile technology in the world (Voice of the Innovators, 2004). An insight regarding how the company keeps its leadership in technological innovation while pursuing its objectives helps in gaining an understanding regarding how new technologies can help organisations attain its goals. 3) The researcher views the alignment of new technologies and business objectives of the organisation can be considered as a powerful strategy that companies may utilised as they compete in the global market. In this regard, the experience of Apple Inc. affirms this view. Since, the company is not only

Crisis Management A Brief Study Management Essay

Crisis Management A Brief Study Management Essay An individual, an organization, a government, or the global economy at any point of time may face debacles. This may come in any form and can devastate the present circumstances and can lead to difficult situations. Such occurrences are often termed as crisis. It is therefore defined as a major, unpredictable and upsetting event that intimidates to harm. Even though crisis is an unpredictable form of event, but it is not unanticipated. This report will present a brief overview of crisis associated with the companies that is, organizational crisis will be the main area of study. In addition, this report will also present insights of the modern crisis management techniques adopted by organizations around the world. Furthermore, the report will also throw light on the cases where companies have faced crisis situation and how they dealt and overcame that situation. In this context the company which has been chosen to depict the importance of crisis management and also to reveal how the company surmounted the situation is Nokia. After that, depending upon the findings of the literature study a conclusion will be drawn. Finally some recommendations will be also provided by which will assist companies to address different forms of crisis. Defining Crisis Eminent scholars have stressed on the fact that crisis is a threat to organizations, an unexpected element and short periods of risk (Akers, 2007, p.11). It can affect every segments of the social order that include educational institutions, non profits, churches, business, families, government etc. This study will however focus on the issue in the context of an organization. For an organization crisis can be illustrated as an anomalous and uncharacteristic situation or perception, which is beyond the control of an organization and also threatens to impact their operation. Several cases have also pointed out that if a possible crisis is identified at the initial stage, it will have least impact or the impact can be minimized to a large extent. On the other hand if a company fails to determine the possible crisis at the initial stage, it can adversely affect the operation of an organization. Even in some cases, a crisis can also threaten the survival of a business. Hence for them to s urvive and operate effectively in the market place, superior crisis management techniques and tools should be in place (Fearn-Banks, 2010, p.2). Defining Crisis Management Crisis management is simply defined as a systematic effort to circumvent or manage the crisis that an organization may face during its lifetime. The concept of crisis management was initiated during the 1980s, when large number of environmental and industrial disasters took place (Barton, 2007, p.5). In order to manage a crisis effectively an organization should consider a systematic approach towards the improvement process as it is indispensable to safeguard the reputation of company along with its brands. Therefore companies should enlighten their customers about the happening and to some extent is necessary for survival (Khodarahmi, 2009, p.524). Additionally, eminent scholars such as Appelbaum, Keller, Alvarez BÃÆ' ©dard (2012) added that relatively modern concepts such as strategic planning can also be effective in managing organizational crisis to a satisfactory level. The authors also put emphasis on the fact that a number of US corporations are employing this concept to f orecast and deal with the issues, threats or problems that are beyond the operating control of the firms. Discussion Eminent scholars such as Dinant and Miller have identified seminal researchers in the same field of study. They categorized the study into two major groups namely macro and micro sizes. The primary intention of their study was to offer insights regarding the most committed and active researches in the field of crisis management (Jaques, 2008, p.192-195). Hence based on their study a number of literatures have been consulted to formulate this report. Several authors also highlight that effective communication plays an imperative role towards managing any form of crisis (White, 2009, p.177-178). For example cases such as oil spill of Exxon Valdez, issues at the Enron Energy Company and the disaster of Space Shuttle Challenger portrayed the importance of communication to get rid of the crisis situations. However not only having effective crisis management team helps an organization to deal with any form perils, it also needs to know the types of crises that may impact the functioning of the organization. Types of crisis A company has to deal with different forms of crisis. Some of the major forms of crisis are detailed below:- Natural Disaster: It is about the physical demolition of the organizationà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s assets due to some naturally occurring disasters. For example flood, earthquake and volcanic eruptions etc (Martin, 2012, p.83). Industrial Accidents: In this aspect the crisis occurs primarily due to a collapse in construction, release of toxic substance, fire etc. Product or Service harm crisis: This type of crisis does not demolish the physical assets of the organization, but impacts on the cognitive aspect of the firm. Some of the examples of product or service failure crisis are equipment failure, system failure and failure in communication (Siomkos, Triantafillidou, Vassilikopoulou Tsiamis, 2010, p.770). Capacity: This type of crisis arises due to some faulty or defective goods. It may have health related issues if not handled properly. Public Relation: This is another type of cognitive crisis that an organization faces. In this context the intangible assets of the company are threatened. In addition, this can have direct effect on the brand image and brand value of the company. Apart from that it can also indirectly affect the net sales. The PR crisis occurs primarily because of poor media attention, negative publicity in the media, or it may also arise to the changes in the management of an organization (Pride Ferrell, 2010, p.412). Legal Crisis: A company may face legal crisis due to product liability, health scare or due to any kind of fraud from the employees of the organization. Business or Corporate Crisis: This is one of the most common and vital type of crisis that an organization faces. Some of the common causes for this crisis are sudden shortages in demand, competitor launching a new and advanced product, large number of customer switches, strike by the workforce, strike by suppliers and hostile takeover. Financial Crisis: One of the major crises that a company some time faces with is the financial crisis. Often companies deal with financial crisis and ultimately losing their position from the market. It is a situation where the company witnesses shortage of fund to properly operate in the market. Crisis Management: A Business Case In order to give a real world example, Nokia has been chosen to depict, how actually a company deals and manages crisis. It was during the time of 2005-2006, when the company was charged with defective batteries. The battery that Nokia used to give with the handsets was BL-5C. Customers complained that the battery gets over heated after certain interval of time. Hence it was a product related crisis and can be termed as Product or Service Failure crisis. However, the situation did not remain curtailed to a product failure; it went on to become one of the largest PR crises of all time. The crisis had struck the company in such a way that the company in the subsequent years went on to record low sales. The company has taken early actions to minimize its impact. The strategy adopted by the company was to simply accept the product and replace the defective batteries. The company well understood that if they do not act in this way, their reputation will be strongly affected that may resul t in negative public relation. The decision of the company to replace all the affected batteries paid off and the company succeeded to a large extent. Although the company initially lost some customers, but later on after the implementation of this strategy Nokia regained the confidence of the customers. The company not only handled the situation effectively, but also displayed how they are prepared for any such occurrences in the future (IBN Live, 2007). Meanwhile other companies such as Cadbury have also faced similar situation. It was related with a worm. The chocolate packets had worm in it and several complaints came forward for the same issue. The company managed the concern by launching a PR campaign within two weeks of the news outbreak. Celebrity endorsement also played a major role in the survival of the company. The campaigned helped them to regain consumer confidence within 3 months only. This shows how effective crisis management can actually offer quick and effective results to a company (Manning, 2007, p.506). Facing Crisis In order to successfully diffuse a crisis, an organization at first, needs to know how to handle that crisis before it actually takes place. Different authors have given different approaches to effectively handle crisis, but among those the most popular theory has been provide by the Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt in the early 1996. The authors, Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt have divided crisis management into three stages. The three phases are named as diagnosis of crisis, planning-prevention, and adjusting to changes. The model developed by them to address the issue of crisis management is demonstrated below: Diagnosis of Crisis: According to the authors the first stage is about determining the early indicators or signs of the crisis. This is an essential task for the managers and executives to sense the warning indications of the crisis. If they are successful in sensing the early signs, it is the duty of the organization to make the employees ready for facing the situation with firm determination and courage. Planning: The second step associated in this model is about the proper planning towards addressing the crisis. Once the crisis has been identified the next step is to plan how the crisis can be handled. According to the authors, the management team should take immediate action to minimize its effect. Also in order to avoid urgent situations relevant strategies are developed and take quick decision. Adjusting the Changes: The final step is to get accustomed with the new situation. It is the duty of the employees to get along with the changes for the purpose of making the organizationà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s function more effective. Also for getting adjusted to the situation properly, it is also important to evaluate the cause that that led the organization to face the crisis. This will prevent the company from doing any mistakes and will foster them to develop new plans and strategies for the future course of action. This phase is also referred to as the post crisis phase (Coombs, 2011, p.10). Apart from that there is one more method by which companies can effectively handle crisis and is commonly known as corporate crisis management. In this context, the management of the organizations forecasts, identifies, examines and acts immediately upon the issue that led to the crisis. This approach enables organizations to deal with any form of crisis (Heller Darling, 2012, p.153). Conclusion The report was about the importance of crisis management within an organization. In this study the company used for depicting the importance as well as revealing the way a company actually deals with crisis situations is Nokia. The study has reviewed substantial amount of literature or the works completed by earlier scholars in the same field of study. It revealed that an organization may face with different type of crises. It includes Natural Disaster, Industrial Accidents, Product or Service Failure, Capacity, Public Relation, Legal Crisis, Business and Management Crisis and Financial Crisis. Similarly Nokia in this context, also faced product and service related crisis which further turned into PR crisis, but the company has effectively managed the situation. The company has a well prepared crisis management team and also contingency plans. Hence analysing the situation, it can be clearly highlighted that each organization should have a well defined crisis management framework to continue its operations effectively in the market place. Recommendation Some of the ways by which a company can effectively manage crisis are as follows: Issues Management: No organization in this world would like to face any situation that may harm their operation process or may disrupt the functioning. Especially, organizations do not like face any circumstances that fuel media coverage. This is because any issues that are scrutinized by the public can result into pessimistic and negative legal, financial and political impacts. Contingency Planning: It is highly recommended that companies around the world must have contingency plans to deal with different kind of crisis situations. Preparing an emergency plan in advance reflects that a company is aptly prepared for crisis. Thus contingency planning is highly essential in crisis management. Business Continuity Plan: There are situations when, to some extent, organizations will be affected by a crisis. To deal with such scenarios organizations should have business continuity plan. A business continuity plan highly assists organizations to reduce the impact of the crisis. In addition, organization must understand the important elements that run daily operation. Hence, a backup for each element must be in place so that the company functions even during the time of crisis. The company should continuously train each employee regarding how to deal with crisis situation. The training should not only be about physical crisis that may occur due to some natural calamities, but also training should be given to deal with cognitive factors.

Hatchet :: essays research papers

I read a Book called Hatchet. Brian Robeson had divorced parents, goes on a flight to see his father in the Canadian wilderness. This is Brains first time in an airplane. He explains this to the pilot and tells him that he is scared. The pilot feels sorry for Brian and decides to show him that flying is not hard. He lets Brian take the steering control and lets him steer for awhile. Just when Brian thinks that everything is going well, the pilot has a heart attack and dies. Brian knows he must land the plane himself or die. He tries to use the radio, but it diddn't work. He knows that if he hits the trees he can die. So he decides to land in the water of a lake. When he lands in the water. He gets out through a window. He sat on the bank of the lake for a while to rest. Brian knew he needed food and shelter to survive so he left to find both. He diddn't want to go too far from the lake where his water was, or he might get lost. He found a cherry tree and he ate some because he was hungry. He filled his windbreaker with cherries to eat later and then found a cave to stay in. He slept good, but in the morning when he woke up, he saw a bear in the cave. He was scared, because the bear was only about 20 feet away eating his cherries out of his windbreaker. The bear only looked at Brian and then left. The cherries must have been enough to full him up. The discovery of how to make a fire was very important to Brains survival. He needed to have a fire at the front of the cave to protect him from wild animals, and to signal for help.A porcupine came into his cave. It was dark in the cave and he heard something moving. He knew it was alive, but he diddn't know what it was. So he kicked it. Then the quills shot into his foot and then he knew it was a porcupine. He was in hurt, and knew he could not touch it. He threw his hatchet, and it hit the rock of the cave instead of the porcupine, and it made a spark. He knew how to make the spark.

Describe the cognitive processes required when preparing for examinations

Introduction The aim of the present paper was to investigate and discuss the cognitive processes involved in the preparation for exams. The paper covers the background of cognitive psychology, discussing the separate faculties of cognitive processing. It then goes on to discuss the specific faculties of attention and memory, as these were two fundamental mechanisms included in the literature when taking into account the learning and memorisation of information. Discussion about the cognitive processes involved in attention and memory is incorporated in to the paper, and suggestions on how students can use cognitive techniques to enhance the performance of these cognitive processes whilst preparing for exams are subsumed. The paper concludes with the suggestion that the working memory model as proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974) is the main cognitive process involved in exam preparation. The term â€Å"cognition† is derived from the Latin word â€Å"cognoscere† which when translated in to the English language, denotes the meaning â€Å"to know†. Hence, cognitive psychology is concerned with the scientific study of human cognition. Processes such as perception, learning, judgement, decision making and memory are some of the mechanisms that constitute as cognitive ability. The fundamental aim of researchers in the field of cognitive psychology is to establish how individuals acquire and apply knowledge and information to and from their environments (Lu & Dosher, 2007). Knowledge through perception is attained by way of the five senses where different aspects of the information such as form and motion represent various different features of the stimuli (Livingstone & Hubel, 1988; Ungerleider & Mishkin, 1982; Julesz, 1971). The purpose of learning is to improve the response of the individual to their environment (Kandel, 1976; Estes, 1969). Thus, thr oughout the psychological literature on cognitive processing, emphasis has been based on the effect of prior experience and procedural knowledge on an individual’s performance (Roediger, 1990). The attention function of the cognitive process manages information so that the mind operates efficiently without becoming overloaded. This is done through selective processing, whereby certain pieces of information are elected for processing. Additionally, the attention faculty may also manage the intake of simultaneous pieces of information by dividing and distributing the resources applied to them (Broadbent, 1957; Posner, 1980; Treisman, 1969). The judgement and decision making faculty of cognitive processing is required for the individual to effectively perform a voluntary behaviour. The choice that the individual makes may be driven by implicit or explicit judgement and selection, implicating that the individual may have a conscious or unconscious cause for their decision (von Ne umann & Morgenstern 1944; Luce, 1959). Yet, the most developed aspect of cognitive psychology and the study of cognitive processes is the faculty of memory. Memory studies place considerable emphasis on investigating the methods in which memories are acquired, stored and retrieved. Research provides indication that the capacity of memory is divided to perform separate duties such as retaining information about the environment, procedures, skills and running the working memory mechanism (Cowan, 1995; Dosher, 1999). The essay at hand endeavours to discuss which cognitive processes are employed during preparation for an exam, with specific references to the attention and memory functions of the brain, as these are the two functions that go hand in hand when retaining and recalling information (Cherry, 2014). The aptitude to process information selectively through attention, and retain information in a way in which is accessible through the working memory are two imperative aspects of c ognitive capacity. While evidence indicates that attention plays little role in the maintenance of information encoded in the memory (Fougnie, 2008), it has been suggested that there are strong links between the working memory and attention faculties of the cognitive mind during the encoding and manipulation process of knowledge acquisition (Cherry 2014; Fougnie, 2008). Theoretical models of the working memory commonly describe a role for attention. However, between these different models, the exact role for attention has not been agreed on and remains vaguely unclear, thus debates about which processing stage that attentional selection occurs (Fougnie, 2008). The most widely accepted model of memory is the Working Memory Model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974. In this model, attention is the mediator between sensory memory and the central executive, where sub functions such as the phonological store and the visuospatial sketch pad, two short term memory stores, hold short ter m auditory and visual information respectively. These are known as the ‘slave systems’ and provide evidence as to how humans are able to multitask. According to the working memory model, the information from these slave systems are then transferred back to the central executive whereby they are encoded in the long-term memory (Fougnie, 2008). These findings provide an outline to which cognitive processes occur during exam preparation, where students attempt to retain information that they will later on retrieve. Yet, further research suggests that learning and retaining information for exams may be a more complex procedure than those outlined by memory models (Hill, 2009). Ebbinghaus (1885) investigated the method in which the retention and forgetting of information occur. The establishment of the forgetting curve provided insight into how memories dissipate over a period of time (Groome, Brace, Dewart, Edgar, Edgar, Esgate, Kemp, Pike & Stafford, 2006). Similarly, Bart lett’s Story Recall experiment (1932) lent insight to the notion that information is required to hold semantic value in order to be remembered (Groome, et al., 2006). Thus, according to Hill (2009), the most effective ways for students to memorise information for their exams is through repetition, elaboration and organisation. To further elaborate on the suggestions of Ebbinghaus (1885), Bartlett (1932) and Hill (2009), researchers proposed several studies in sustenance. Ebbinghaus (1885) further stated that in order to avoid forgetting and enhance memory, repetition was significantly valuable. Making use of the ‘mind’s voice’, the phonological loop, the cycle of learning and accurately recalling strengthens the memory, thus making exam preparation easier as less time will be required to re-learn the material, hence why revising for exams more than once improves recall (Hill, 2009). Moreover, in favour of Bartlett (1932), it has been found that information possessing semantic value is recalled more efficiently (Craik & Tulving, 1975; Ley, 1978). It may be hypothesised that the explanation of is deduced to the attention function of the working memory selecting meaningful information in order to enhance the individual’s performance based on prior learning and experience. Based on these findings, mnemonics may be suggested as an effective revision tool, since associating information with vivid visual imagery and words has proven enhanced recall (Bower, 1972). Furthermore, presenting information in a structured manner in which meaning is conveyed has been found to facilitate recall (Hill, 2009). By grouping or ordering materials in an organised manner, the individual will take advantage of the mind’s existing method of representing information semantically, thus making the information easier to encode and retrieve through memory. For example, Ley et al (1978) found that presenting medical information to patients in an organ ised and structured way improved their recall up to 25%. Thus, it is suggested that students adequately organise their learning materials in a semantic manner in order to prepare for their exams in the most resourceful way. Although the literature has provided rich evidence to support the notion that the memory and attention faculties play a major role in exam preparation, there are also relevant limitations in need of addressing. The working memory model has been criticised as being invalid, as when new studies propose findings that do not fit with the current working memory model, the working memory model is modified in order to accommodate the new findings. This makes it difficult to falsify the model or replace it with a new one, and indicates that any research findings based on the working memory model are void (Neath & Nairne , 1995). Moreover, the findings of Ebbinghaus (1885) have been questioned, as the subject of his study was himself. Without any objective findings, resea rchers believe the results of the forgetting curve to be unreliable (Hill, 2009). Despite these criticisms, later research based on both the working memory model and the forgetting curve has successfully uncovered new findings on the cognitive processes involved in memory (Groome, et al., 2006). In conclusion, the findings in the literature have lent ample support to the notion that exam preparation heavily relies on the cognitive processes of attention and memory. The literature has indicated that these two faculties work conjointly in order to achieve long-term memory. Studies on the Working Memory Model have identified the specific roles of the two cognitive processes, and the literature has provided further support on how the working memory model is vital in exam revision through detailed descriptions of these functions. Studies on memory retention and forgetting have implicated that repetition, elaboration and organisation are the key skills that an individual needs to employ whist preparing for exams in order to maintain an optimal memory capacity for the revised information. Regardless of the limitations associated with the research done on memory, the working memory model still stands as a strong representative for the cognitive process involved in exam preparation. References Baddeley, A.D. & Hitch, G.J. (1974). Working memory, in G.H. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory. Vol. VIII. 47-90, New York: Academic Press. Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bower, G.H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning. In L. Gregg (Ed.), Cognition in Learning and Memory, 51-88. Broadbent, D. E. (1957) A mechanical model for human attention and immediate memory. Psychological Review, 64. 205-215. Cherry, K. (2014). Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips. Retrieved from: http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/memory_tips.htm Accessed: 12/03/14 Craik, F.I.M. & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General, 104. 268-294. Cowan, N. (1995) Attention and memory: an integrated framework. New York: Oxford University Press. Dosher, B.A. (1999) Item interference and time delays in working memory: Immediate serial recall. International Journal of Psychology Special Issue: Short term/working memory, 34. 276-284. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Uber das Gedachtnis. Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Leipzig: Dunker & Humbolt. Estes, W. K. (1969) Reinforcement in human learning. In J. Tapp (Ed.), Reinforcement and behavior. New York: Academic Press. Fougnie, D. (2008). The Relationship Between Attention and Working Memory. New Research on Short Term Memory. 1-45. Groome, D., Brace, N., Dewart, H., Edgar, G., Edgar, H., Esgate, A., Kemp, R., Pike, G. & Stafford, D. (2006). An introduction to cognitive psychology. Processes and disorders. Second Edition. East Sussex: Psychology Press. Hill, G. (2009). AS & A Level Psychology Through Diagrams: Oxford Revision Guides. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Julesz, B. (1971). Foundations of cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kandel, E. R. (1976) Cellular basis of behavior: An introduction to behavioural neurobiology. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Livingstone, M.S. and Hubel, D.H. (1988) Segregation of form, colour, movement and depth: Anatomy, physiology and perception. Science, 240. 740–749. Ley, P. (1978) Memory for medical information. In Gruneberg, M.M., Morris, P.E. & Sykes, R.N. (eds) Practical Aspects of Memory. London: Academic Press. Lu, Z.L. & Dosher, B.A. (2007). Cognitive Psychology. Scholarpedia.2(8), 2769. Luce, D. R. (1959) Individual choice behavior; a theoretical analysis. New York: Wiley. Neath, I. & Nairne, J.S. (1995). Word length effects in immediate memory: Overwriting the trace decay theory. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 2, 429-441. Posner, M.I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3-25. Roediger III, H. L. (2002) Processing approaches to cognition: The impetus from the levels-of-processing framework. Memory, 10. 319-332. Treisman, A. M. (1969) Strategies and models of selective attention. Psychological Review, 76. 282-299. Ungerleider, L.G. & Mishkin, M. (1982) In D.J. Ingle, M.A. Goodale, & R.J.W. Mansfield (Eds.). Analysis of visual behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. von Neumann, J. & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Becoming a Family

The family is still considered by sociologists as the nuclear component of any society regardless of cultural norms, traditions and beliefs. In the United States, the average American family has undergone dramatic changes in terms of its function and structures. Of these changes, the most apparent is the fact that most average American families are now what many considered as blended families.Blended families are considered to be extremely complex in terms of its structure and as such, the interpersonal relationship between the members of these blended families becomes complex as well. It is for this reason that numerous research studies have been conducted with regards to the adaptation and interpersonal relationships that occur between family members. This paper would provide a summary of the findings of one particular research study conducted with regards to the relationship among members of blended families.The paper would also provide a critical evaluation on the findings that h ave been presented by the researchers in the article provided by comparing this with four other journal articles on the topic. Summary of Article The journal article selected for the critical evaluation to be conducted in this paper is a study conducted by Braithwaite, Olson, Golish, Soukup and Turman entitled â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmental Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse.In this article, the researchers found the need to investigate and develop a deeper understanding on the different processes that occur within blended families in order to become a solid, nuclear family sociologists have long recognized as the foundation of any society. The need was brought about by statistics showing an increase in the number of blended families now present within modern-day American societies (Braithwaite, Olson, Golish, Soukuip & Turman 2000). The study conducted by the researchers involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies centering on a process-focus approach.A total of 980 members of blended families were interviewed by the researchers, with the questionnaire based on the findings of previous research studies conducted on the subject matter. Based on the data gathered by the researchers, they had determined that the major issues blended families had to cope with in order to become a strong nuclear family are the management of boundaries between members of the family, solidarity and adaptation to the concept of being a blended family.The researchers determined that although the negotiation processes that occurred among members of blended families differs there remains some common factors which, in turn, help determine whether or not the blended family would be able to adapt or otherwise (Braithwaite et al 2000). According to the analysis of the data gathered by the researchers with regards to the methods of negotiation that occurs within blended families, they determined that those that have experienced what the y considered to be constructive trajectories are more able to adapt to the situation a lot better, regardless of the issues at hand.In the case of overcoming the issue with regards to boundary management, the researchers determined that successful blended families are those that through the proper use of interpersonal communication skills, the members of the blended family are more able to have a smooth transition for the new members of the family to become incorporated in the blended family. On the other hand, the lack of such negotiating skills can result for the addressing of boundary management to become stagnant within the first four years of being a blended family or even cause friction and turmoil to arise.The same holds true with regards to addressing the issues of solidarity and adaptation among blended families. Based on this, the researchers concluded that manner on how interpersonal relationship and communication occurs between members of the blended family is a key fact or in determining the success – or lack thereof – in the solidifying of the blended family (Braithwaite et al 2000). Critical EvaluationIn order to provide an ample critical evaluation with regards to the article summarized, the concept of â€Å"blended families† must first be determined. According to Shalay and Brownlee (2007), blended families are those families that occur as a result of a remarriage made on the part of the parents. In many cases, sociologists define blended families as those separated families that have been united with each other by marriage. In the United States, blended families have now become a common part of society.In a country, where almost half of the marriages end in divorce, it has been estimated that 79% of divorced men and 75% divorced women would remarry, with 60% of this population having children from the previously dissolved marriage (Darden & Zimmerman 1992). While the commonly used terminology in society to refer to the par ent-child relationship and sibling relationship resulting from the remarriage process as step families, sociologists prefer to use the term blended families to recognize the merging of these two families into one solid unit (Shalay & Brownlee 2007).The focus of the article â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmental Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse is centered on the understanding of the different pathways that blended families undergo as they slowly merge and become one solid family unit. During this process, the researchers have determined that the main issues faced by blended families are boundary management, solidarity and adaptation.Through the initial literature review conducted by the researchers for the study, they have determined that stage-based models initially used by sociologists have been extremely limited primarily due to its over-simplification of the stages presented and the assumption that blended families must attain a specific objective in ord er to reach the next level. The complexity of the structure of blended families have led the researchers to adopt a process approach to understand the different patterns and processes that blended families undergo in their quest in becoming a solid family unit (Braithwaite et al 2000).These conclusions were also found by Wood in her book entitled Relational Communication: Continuity and Change in Personal Relationships. In her chapter which looks into the development of intimacy in interpersonal relationships, Wood (2000) stipulated that earlier models depicting stages within interpersonal relationships, such as that experienced in blended families, have been initially misinterpreted as a stage or a state where in fact, the development of intimacy is an ongoing process.By viewing the development of intimacy in interpersonal relationships, one can assume that the moment the stage is completed, those involved in the interpersonal relationship would be able to progress to the next stag e and would no longer experience the conflicts and issues that have already been addressed in the previous stage. In reality, interpersonal relationships is an ongoing process depicted by the solving and resolving conflicts and issues throughout the length of the relationship, making the process approach more applicable in the understanding of blended families.The premise presented by Wood in her book can also be found in the article of Ginther and Pollak entitled Family Structure and Children’s Educational Outcomes: Blended Families, Stylized Facts, and Descriptive Regressions where they looked into the difference between the performance of children coming from â€Å"intact† families and those coming from blended families. Here, Ginther and Pollack (2004) stated that in the understanding of how being a part of a blended family would influence the educational performance of a child.Based on the initial research they conducted, they determined that many of the literatur e that they reviewed approach the study of blended families through what they termed as stylized facts, which are simple correlations between parents and children in terms of the relationships that they foster within a blended family. Ginther and Pollack discovered that those that have utilized the stylized fact approach would often be a result of the inconsistent parenting styles experienced by the children in the presence of both the biological parent and the stepparent.While this may partly be responsible for any form of conflict arising within blended families and thus, making the process of becoming a family unit more difficult, the study that they have conducted have found that this is brought about by the stress continuously experienced within the relationship between parents and children in blended families. As such, they stipulated in their study that a change in the approach to focus more on the relationship between parents and children in blended families are more importa nt in understanding the process undertaken by blended families into becoming solid family units.In the article â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmental Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse, the use of negotiation has been considered extremely vital in the addressing of issues commonly faced by blended families in their quest to become a solid family unit. This premise has been supported in other studies that have been conducted by other researchers. In a study conducted by Darden and Zimmerman (1992), they looked into the various issues faced by blended families in the United States over the last decade from a theoretical, clinical and research perspective.It was their understanding that much of the previous approaches and methods utilized in the understanding of blended families in the United States have been inadequate due to the fact that they were based on previous studies conducted on â€Å"intact† families as well as single-parent families. The resear chers have determined that the primary conflict rising within blended families are rooted from the roles that each member plays. The children still regard their biological, or natural, parents to be the only ones that have authority over their growth and development as individuals.As a result, the stepparents would often find themselves feeling excluded from their role as being a parent to these children since negotiations are commonly made between biological parents instead between the biological parent and the stepparent. The importance of such negotiation between biological parents was comprehensively explained in a study conducted by Kathleen Rodgers and Hilary Rose. In their study, which focused on the understanding factors that contribute further in the psychological and behavioral changes observed among adolescents in blended families.This was done through the use of the risk and resiliency framework. Because of the loss of a recognized parent from the household, the adolesce nt in a blended family may perceive the infrequent presence of the recognized parent to be a loss of parental support. The resiliency framework is used to measure the level of adaptation that the adolescent experiences as a result of a challenging situation, in this case, the shift from an â€Å"intact† family to a blended family.Based on their findings, they had determined that one method for the proper and successful adaptation of the children in blended families is through the constant negotiation between biological parents as well as between the biological parent and stepparent would be able to resolve any feelings of resistance on the part of the children, which would, in turn, lead to the progress of the blended family in terms of addressing the three issues presented by Braithwaite and her colleagues which are boundary management, solidarity and adaptation (Rodgers & Rose 2002).The negotiation process presented in the article â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmen tal Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse has been used as a tool used by many family therapists during counseling sessions, particularly with blended families who are having difficulties in becoming a solid family unit. In the article, much of the conflict arise as a result of the awareness of the fact that the initial expectations that had once been held by members of the blended family are shattered as they realize the reality of the situation that they find themselves in.One method utilized in family counseling sessions is the use of narrative therapy. In their article Narrative Family Therapy with Blended Families, Shalay and Brownlee (2007), determined through the study that they have conducted that through the use of a process approach, the narrative therapy proved to be beneficial in helping blended families become solid family units since through this method, they are able to discuss not just their expectations.The narrative therapy also allows members of the fa mily to relate any form of disappointments that they have experienced as a result of not being able to meet their initial expectations as well as social myths that they have heard with regards to blended families and influences of previous histories in their respective lives. Through this, members of the blended family are then able to reach a comprise resulting from negotiation processes carefully assisted by the therapist in order to ensure that the blended family becomes a solid family unit.Conclusion With more and more families now becoming blended as a result of different social factors, particularly divorce and remarriage, harmony and unity within the family has now become extremely more complicated to achieve. Although this phenomenon is common, this nevertheless brings about new conflicts that have not been observed among traditional nuclear families. This includes the rise of the issues regarding boundary management, adaptation and solidarity.It is for this reason that the use of negotiation skills has become more important among blended families in order to eradicate any fears and inhibitions felt by the members of the blended family in order to achieve harmony and unity, thus exhibiting the same traits found among traditional families. 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